.

Citation Styles

American Psychological Association (APA) Style

APA handbook

When citing a work in APA style, use author-date citation system.

Literature

Books

Use the same formats for both print books and e-books. For e-books, the format, platform, or device (e.g., Kindle) is not included in the reference.

In text citation:

“surname of author, year of publication”. 

Parenthetical citation:

  • (Loman & Merman, 1996)
  • (Sherman, Follows, Mushore, Hampson-Jones, & Wright-Bevans, 2015)

Narrative citation: 

  • Loman & Merman (1996)

Reference list:

Author. (Year of publication). Title. Publisher of the book. 

Chapter in an Edited Book

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (Aron et al., 2019; Dillard, 2020; Thestrup, 2010)

Narrative citation:

  • Aron et al. (2019), Dillard (2020), and Thestrup (2010)

Reference list:

  • Aron, L., Botella, M., & Lubart, T. (2019). Culinary arts: Talent and their development. In R. F. Subotnik, P. Olszewski-Kubilius, & F. C. Worrell (Eds.), The psychology of high performance: Developing human potential into domain-specific talent (pp. 345–359). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000120-016

Republished Book

Reference list:

  • Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (2013). Conditioned emotional reactions: The case of Little Albert (D. Webb, Ed.). CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. http://a.co/06Se6Na (Original work published 1920)

Whole Edited Book

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (Hygum & Pedersen, 2010; Kesharwani, 2020; Torino et al., 2019)

Narrative citation:

  • Hygum and Pedersen (2010), Kesharwani (2020), and Torino et al. (2019)

Reference list:

  • Hygum, E., & Pedersen, P. M. (Eds.). (2010). Early childhood education: Values and practices in Denmark. Hans Reitzels Forlag. https://earlychildhoodeducation.digi.hansreitzel.dk/
  • Kesharwani, P. (Ed.). (2020). Nanotechnology based approaches for tuberculosis treatment. Academic Press.

Several Volumes of a Multi Volume Work

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (Harris et al., 2012)

Narrative citation:

  • Harris et al. (2012)

Reference list:

  • Harris, K. R., Graham, S., & Urdan T. (Eds.). (2012). APA educational psychology handbook (Vols. 1–3). American Psychological Association.
Periodicals

Journal Article

  1. If a journal article has a DOI, include the DOI in the reference.
  2. Always include the issue number for a journal article.
  3. If the journal article does not have a DOI and is from an academic research database, end the reference after the page range. The reference in this case is the same as for a print journal article.
  4. Do not include database information in the reference unless the journal article comes from a database that publishes works of limited circulation or original, proprietary content, such as UpToDate.
  5. If the journal article does not have a DOI but does have a URL that will resolve for readers (e.g., it is from an online journal that is not part of a database), include the URL of the article at the end of the reference.

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (Grady et al., 2019)

Narrative citation:

  • Grady et al. (2019)

Reference list:

Grady, J. S., Her, M., Moreno, G., Perez, C., & Yelinek, J. (2019). Emotions in storybooks: A comparison of storybooks that represent ethnic and racial groups in the United States. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 8(3), 207–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000185

Abstract of a Journal Article from an Abstract Indexing Database

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (Hare & O’Neill, 2000)

Narrative citation:

  • Hare and O’Neill (2000)

Reference list:

  • Hare, L. R., & O'Neill, K. (2000). Effectiveness and efficiency in small academic peer groups: A case study (Accession No. 200010185) [Abstract from Sociological Abstracts]. Small Group Research, 31(1), 24–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/104649640003100102

Magazine Article References

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (Lyons, 2009; Schaefer & Shapiro, 2019; Schulman, 2019)

Narrative citation:

  •  Lyons (2009), Schaefer and Shapiro (2019), and Schulman (2019)

Reference list:

Newspaper Article References

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (Carey, 2019; Harlan, 2013; Stobbe, 2020)

Narrative citation:

  • Carey (2019), Harlan (2013), and Stobbe (2020)

Reference list:

  • Carey, B. (2019, March 22). Can we get better at forgetting? The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/22/health/memory-forgetting-psychology.html
  • Harlan, C. (2013, April 2). North Korea vows to restart shuttered nuclear reactor that can make bomb-grade plutonium. The Washington Post, A1, A4.
  • Stobbe, M. (2020, January 8). Cancer death rate in U.S. sees largest one-year drop ever. Chicago Tribune.

Up To Date Article References

  1. Articles in the UpToDate database are available only in that database and have information that changes over time.
  2. In the reference list, format UpToDate articles like periodical articles. Italicize the database name in the reference like a periodical title, but do not italicize the database name if it appears in the text.
  3. Use the year of last update in the date element.
  4. Include a retrieval date because the content is designed to change over time and versions of the page are not archived.

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (Bordeaux & Lieberman, 2020)

Narrative citation:

  • Bordeaux and Lieberman (2020)

Reference list:

Webpages and Websites

Webpage on a News Website

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (Bologna, 2019; Roberts, 2020; Toner, 2020)

Narrative citation:

  • Bologna (2019), Roberts (2020), and Toner (2020)

Reference list:

Webpage on a Website with a Government Agency Group Author

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (National Institute of Mental Health, 2018)

Narrative citation:

  • National Institute of Mental Health (2018)

Reference list:

Webpage on a Website with an Organizational Group Author

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (World Health Organization, 2018)

Narrative citation:

  • World Health Organization (2018)

Reference list:

Webpage on a Website with an Individual Author

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (Horovitz, 2021; Schaeffer, 2021)

Narrative citation:

  •  Horovitz (2021) and Schaeffer (2021)

Reference list:

Other Resources

Online Dictionary Entry References

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (American Psychological Association, n.d.; Merriam-Webster, n.d.)

Narrative citation:

  • American Psychological Association (n.d.) and Merriam-Webster (n.d.)

Reference list:

Print Dictionary Entry References

In text citation

Parenthetical citation:

  • (American Psychological Association, 2015; Merriam-Webster, 2003)

Narrative citation:

  • American Psychological Association (2015) and Merriam-Webster (2003)

Reference list:

  • American Psychological Association. (2015). Mood induction. In APA dictionary of psychology (2nd ed., p. 667).

  • Merriam-Webster. (2003). Litmus test. In Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary (11th ed., p. 727).

Published Dissertations or Thesis References

In text citations

Parenthetical citation:

  • (Kabir, 2016; Miranda, 2019; Zambrano-Vazquez, 2016)

Narrative citation:

  • Kabir (2016), Miranda (2019), and Zambrano-Vazquez (2016)

Reference list:

  • Kabir, J. M. (2016). Factors influencing customer satisfaction at a fast food hamburger chain: The relationship between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty (Publication No. 10169573) [Doctoral dissertation, Wilmington University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
  • Miranda, C. (2019). Exploring the lived experiences of foster youth who obtained graduate level degrees: Self-efficacy, resilience, and the impact on identity development (Publication No. 27542827) [Doctoral dissertation, Pepperdine University]. PQDT Open. https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/2309521814.html?FMT=AI
  • Zambrano-Vazquez, L. (2016). The interaction of state and trait worry on response monitoring in those with worry and obsessive-compulsive symptoms [Doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona]. UA Campus Repository. https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/620615

Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis References

In text citations

Parenthetical citation:

  •  (Harris, 2014)

Narrative citation:

  • Harris (2014)

Reference list:

  • Harris, L. (2014). Instructional leadership perceptions and practices of elementary school leaders [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Virginia.

The American Medical Association (AMA) Style

The American Medical Association (AMA) provides guidelines on the citation style called the AMA citation format.

AMA is a common type of reference in the field of medicine. It is required when you submit to a journal published by the American Medical Association.

AMA citation format includes:

  • Numerical in-text citations, written in superscript
  • A numbered reference list giving full source information

The AMA in text citation is a superscript number (e.g. 7) that appears at the point in the text that contains information from another source. The number points to the relevant entry on the AMA reference page. If the same reference is used in another quotation, the same superscript number is also used. 

Literature

Books

References should include the last name and first and middle initials of the author(s), italicized title case format for all titles (capitalize all words except prepositions such as of, between, through), articles (such as a, the, and an), and conjunctions (such as but, and, or; however, capitalize them if they begin the title or the subtitle) the city and state of publication, the publisher, and the year of publication/creation.

Last name First Middle initial, ed/trans. Book Title in Title Case. Publisher; Year of publication.

  • Silverstein A, Silverstein VB, Nunn LS. Cancer. Twenty-First Century Books; 2006.

References to Book Chapters

Chapters of books must be capitalized in the same format as journal articles (sentence case format) and should not use quotation marks. In addition, page numbers for each chapter must be provided. However, the title of the book must be written in the case of the title and italicized in accordance with the printing format of the book. A colon should follow the date of publication and no space should be provided between the colon or page number(s) and the hyphen.

Last name First Middle initials. Article title in sentence case. In: Last name First Middle initial, ed/trans. Book Title in Title Case. Publisher; Year of publication: page range.

  • Yagyu S, Iehara T. MYCN nonamplified neuroblastoma: Detection of tumor-derived cell-free DNA in serum for predicting prognosis of neuroblastoma. In: Hayat MA, ed. Pediatric Cancer Diagnosis, Therapy, and Prognosis. Springer; 2013:11-17.

 

Periodicals

Journal

Names of journals are abbreviated and italicized. Do not omit numbers from inclusive page numbers. The year of publication is followed by a semicolon; the volume number and the issue number (in brackets) are followed by a colon; the initial page number, a hyphen and the last page number, followed by a period, are set without spaces. 

  • Compston A, Coles A. Multiple sclerosis. The Lancet. 2008;372(9648):1502-1517.
  • Jungang L. Investigation of radon and heavy metals in Xuanwei and Fuyuan, high lung cancer incidence areas in China. J Environ Health. 2013;76(4):32-39.
Online resources

Online Journals

Basic format: Author Last name First Initial Middle Initial. Title written in sentence case. Journal Name. Year; vol(issue no.):inclusive pages. doi:######. Date accessed only if DOI is unavailable. URL only if DOI is unavailable.

E-Books

Basic format: Author Last name First Initial Middle Initial. Chapter title written in sentence case. In: Editor(s). Book Title. Edition number, if it is the second edition or above (mention of first edition is not necessary). Book medium. Publisher’s name; copyright: chapter/inclusive pages. Accessed [date]. URL [provide URL and verify that the link still works as close as possible to the time of publication].

Website

Basic format: Author Last name First Initial Middle Initial or the name of the group. Title of the specific item cited (if none is given, use the name of the organization responsible for the site). Name of the website. Date published. Updated date. Accessed date. URL [provide URL and verify that the link still works as close as possible to publication].

Other resources

Theses and Dissertations

Italicize the titles of the thesis and dissertation. After the title, indicate whether the document was a master's thesis or dissertation. References to theses should include the location of the university (or other institution) and the year of completion. If a thesis or dissertation has been published, it must be treated as a reference to any other book. 

  • Medapati MR. Extracellular S100A4 Induces Human Thyroid Cancer Cell Migration. Masters thesis. University of Manitoba; 2013.

 

Chicago Style

The Chicago Manual of Style

Chicago-style source citations come in two varieties: notes and bibliography and author-date.  

The abbreviation ibid. usually refers to a single work cited in the note immediately preceding. Chicago discourages the use of ibid. in favour of shortened citations. To avoid repetition, the title of a work just cited may be omitted. 

The most common short form consists of the last name of the author and the main title of the work cited, usually shortened if more than four words ( Schwartz, "Nationals and Nationalism," 138.)

 

Literature

Books

Note that a place of publication is no longer required in book citations.

  • 1Charles Yu, Interior Chinatown (Pantheon Books, 2020), 45.
  • 2Amy J. Binder and Jeffrey L. Kidder, The Channels of Student Activism: How the Left and Right Are Winning (and Losing) in Campus Politics Today (University of Chicago Press, 2022), 117–18.

Shortened notes

  • 1Yu, Interior Chinatown, 48.
  • 2Binder and Kidder, Channels of Student Activism, 125.

Bibliography entries (in alphabetical order)

  • Binder, Amy J., and Jeffrey L. Kidder. The Channels of Student Activism: How the Left and Right Are Winning (and Losing) in Campus Politics Today. University of Chicago Press, 2022.
  • Yu, Charles. Interior Chinatown. Pantheon Books, 2020.

Chapter of a Book

Note

  • 1Kathleen Doyle, “The Queen Mary Psalter,” In The Book by Design: The Remarkable Story of the World’s Greatest Invention, ed. P. J. M. Marks and Stephen Parkin (University of Chicago Press, 2023), 64.

Shortened note

  • 1Doyle, “Queen Mary Psalter,” 65.

Bibliography entry

  • Doyle, Kathleen. “The Queen Mary Psalter.” In The Book by Design: The Remarkable Story of the World’s Greatest Invention, edited by P. J. M. Marks and Stephen Parkin. University of Chicago Press, 2023.

Translated Book

Note

  • 1Liu Xinwu, The Wedding Party, trans. Jeremy Tiang (Amazon Crossing, 2021).

Shortened note

  • 2Liu, Wedding Party, 279.

Bibliography entry

  • Liu Xinwu. The Wedding Party. Translated by Jeremy Tiang. Amazon Crossing, 2021.

Electronic Book

To cite a book consulted online, include either a URL or the name of the database. For downloadable ebook formats, name the format; if no fixed page numbers are available, cite a section title or a chapter or other number in the note (or simply omit). For citing a place rather than a publisher for books published before 1900.

Notes

Shortened notes

  • 5Roy, God of Small Things, chap. 7.
  • 6Kurland and Lerner, Founders’ Constitution, chap. 4, doc. 29.
  • 7Borel, Fact-Checking, 104–5.
  • 8Melville, Moby-Dick, 722–23.

Bibliography entries (in alphabetical order)

Book Review

Note

  • 1 Alexandra Jacobs, “The Muchness of Madonna,” review of Madonna: A Rebel Life, by Mary Gabriel, New York Times, October 8, 2023.

Shortened note

  • 2 Jacobs, “Muchness of Madonna.”

Bibliography entry

  • Jacobs, Alexandra. “The Muchness of Madonna.” Review of Madonna: A Rebel Life, by Mary Gabriel. New York Times, October 8, 2023.

If the Author is Unknown

When no author appears on the title page, a work is listed by the name(s) of the editor(s), compiler(s), or translator(s). In full note citations and in bibliographies, the abbreviation ed. or eds.,comp. or comps., or trans. follows the name, preceded by a comma. In shortened note citations and text citations, the abbreviation is omitted.

Note

  • 1Jennifer Egan, ed., The Best American Short Stories, 2014 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014), 100. 

Bibliography entry

  • Egan, Jennifer, ed. The Best American Short Stories, 2014. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014.

Letters in Published Collections

A reference to a letter in a published collection begins with the names of the sender and the recipient, in that order, followed by a date and sometimes the place where the communication was prepared. Words such as letter, postcard, email, and the like are usually unnecessary, but other forms, such as memorandums, should be specified. 

Note

  • 1 Adams to Charles Milnes Gaskell, Baden, September 22, 1867, in Letters of Henry Adams, 1858-1891, ed. Worthington Chauncey Ford (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), 133-34.

Bibliography entry

  • Adams, Henry. Letters of Henry Adams, 1858-1891. Edited by Worthington Chauncey Ford. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930. 

When it is necessary to include a single letter in a bibliography, it is listed under the writer's name only.

  • Jackson, Paulina. Paulina Jackson to John Pepys Junior, October 3, 1676. In The Letters of Samuel Pepys and His Family Circle, edited by Helen Truesdell Heath, no. 42. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955.

Series

Note

  • 1 Sean Hsiang-lin Lei, Neither Donkey nor Horse: Medicine in the Struggle over China's Modernity, Studies of the Weatherhead East Asian Institute (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014)

Bibliographic entry

  • Martin, Jean-Pierre. L'autre vie d'Orwell. Collection l'un et l'autre. Paris: Gallimard, 2013.

The name of the series editor is usually omitted. When included, it follows the series title. 

Multivolume Works

In source citations, volume numbers are always given in arabic numerals, even if in the original work they appear in roman numerals or are spelled out. If the volume number is immediately followed by a page number, the abbreviation vol. is omitted and a colon separates the volume number from the page number with no intervening space. 

  • Byrne, Lisle Letters, 4:245.

When a multivolume work is cited as a whole, the total number of volumes is given after the title of the work. If the volumes have been published over several years, the dates of the first and last volumes are given, separated by an en dash. 

Note

  • 1 Aristotle, Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation, ed. J. Barnes, 2 vols., Bollingen Series (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983).

Bibliographic entry

  • James, Henry. The Complete Tales of Henry James. Edited by Leon Edel. 12 vols. London:Rupert Hart-Davis, 1962-64.

If a particular volume of a multivolume work is cited, the volume number and the individual volume title, if there is one, are given in addition to the general title. If volumes have been published in different years, only the date of the cited volume is given. 

  • 1Muriel St.Clare Byrne, ed., The Isle Letters (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 4:243.
  • 2The Complete Tales of Henry James, ed. Leon Edel, vol.5, 1883-1884 (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1963), 32-33.

If only one volume of a multivolume work is of interest to the readers, it may be listed alone in a bibliography in either the following ways:

  • Carson, Clayborne, ed. The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. Vol.7, To Save the Soul of America, January 1961-August 1962, edited by Tenisha Armstrong. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014. 
  • Armstrong, Tenisha, ed. To Save the Soul of America, January 1961-August 1962. Vol. 7 of The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., edited by Clayborne Carson. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1922-.

If a single volume of a multivolume work is published as two or more books, the reference must then include book as well as volume number. 

  • 1 Donald Lach, Asia in the Making of Europe, vol.2, bk.3, The Scholarly Disciplines (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 351.
Periodicals

Journal Article

Journal articles are usually cited by volume and issue number. In a note, cite specific page numbers. In the bibliography, include the page range for the whole article. For articles consulted online, include a URL (preferably one based on a DOI); alternatively, list the name of the database.

Notes

  • 1Hyeyoung Kwon, “Inclusion Work: Children of Immigrants Claiming Membership in Everyday Life,” American Journal of Sociology 127, no. 6 (2022): 1842–43, https://doi.org/10.1086/720277.
  • 2B. T. Hebert, “The Island of Bolsö: A Study of Norwegian Life,” Sociological Review 17, no. 4 (1925): 310, EBSCOhost.
  • 3Benjamin Lindquist, “The Art of Text-to-Speech,” Critical Inquiry 50, no. 2 (2023): 230, https://doi.org/10.1086/727651.
  • 4Emily L. Dittmar and Douglas W. Schemske, “Temporal Variation in Selection Influences Microgeographic Local Adaptation,” American Naturalist 202, no. 4 (2023): 480, https://doi.org/10.1086/725865.

Shortened notes

  • 1Kwon, “Inclusion Work,” 1851.
  • 2Hebert, “Island of Bolsö,” 311.
  • 3Lindquist, “Text-to-Speech,” 231–32.
  • 4Dittmar and Schemske, “Temporal Variation,” 480.

Bibliography entries (in alphabetical order)

  • Dittmar, Emily L., and Douglas W. Schemske. “Temporal Variation in Selection Influences Microgeographic Local Adaptation.” American Naturalist 202, no. 4 (2023): 471–85. https://doi.org/10.1086/725865.
  • Hebert, B. T. “The Island of Bolsö: A Study of Norwegian Life.” Sociological Review 17, no. 4 (1925): 307–13. EBSCOhost.
  • Kwon, Hyeyoung. “Inclusion Work: Children of Immigrants Claiming Membership in Everyday Life.” American Journal of Sociology 127, no. 6 (2022): 1818–59. https://doi.org/10.1086/720277.
  • Lindquist, Benjamin. “The Art of Text-to-Speech.” Critical Inquiry 50, no. 2 (2023): 225–51. https://doi.org/10.1086/727651.

Journal articles often list many authors, especially in the sciences. For works by two authors, list both in the bibliography and in a note (as in the Dittmar and Schemske example above). For three or more authors, list up to six in the bibliography; for more than six authors, list the first three, followed by “et al.” (“and others”). In a note, list only the first, followed by “et al.” 

News or Magazine Article

Articles from newspapers or news sites, magazines, blogs, and the like are cited similarly. Page numbers, if any, can be cited in a note but are omitted from a bibliography entry. For articles consulted online, include a URL or the name of the database.

Notes

Shortened notes

  • 1Blum, “Flax Seeds.”
  • 2Mead, “Terms of Aggrievement,” 23–24.
  • 3 Pegoraro, “Apple’s iPhone.”
  • 4 Klein, “Meet Flip.”

Bibliography entries (in alphabetical order)

Webpages and websites

Web Page

It is often sufficient simply to describe web pages and other website content in the text (“As of November 15, 2023, Google’s privacy policy stated . . .”). If a more formal citation is needed, it may be styled like the examples below. If a source does not list a date of publication or revision, include an access date. Alternatively, if a publicly available archive of the content has been saved using the Internet Archive’s Wayback Machine or similar service, the link for that version may be cited.

Notes

or

Shortened notes

  • 1 Google, “Privacy Policy.”
  • 2“Wikipedia: Manual of Style.”
  • 3“Yale Facts.”

Bibliography entries (in alphabetical order)

In the notes, the title will usually come first (as in the examples above); in a bibliography entry, the source should be listed under the owner or sponsor of the site.

or

Personal Communications

Personal communications, including email and text messages and direct messages sent through social media, are usually cited in the text or in a note only; they are rarely included in a bibliography.

Note

  • 1Sam Gomez, Facebook direct message to author, August 1, 2024.
Other Resources

Thesis or Dissertation

Note

  • 1Yuna Blajer de la Garza, “A House Is Not a Home: Citizenship and Belonging in Contemporary Democracies” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2019), 66–67, ProQuest (13865986).

Shortened note

  • 1Blajer de la Garza, “House,” 93.

Bibliography entry

  • Blajer de la Garza, Yuna. “A House Is Not a Home: Citizenship and Belonging in Contemporary Democracies.” PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2019. ProQuest (13865986).

Scriptural References

Any writer or editor working extensively with biblical material should consult the latest edition of The SBL Handbook of Style, which offers excellent advise ad numerous abbreviations. 

References to the Jewish or Christian scriptures usually appear in text citations or notes rather than in bibliographies. Parenthetical or note references to the Bible should include book, chapter, and verse - never a page number. A colon is used between chapter and verse. Note that the traditional abbreviations use periods but the shorter forms do not. 

Since books and numbering are not identical in different versions, it is essential to identify which version is being cited. For a work intended for general readers, the version should be spelled out, at least on first occurrence. For specialists, abbreviations may be used throughout. 

  • 2 Kings 11:8 (New Revised Standart Version).
  • 2. Korintiešiem 9:6, 1965. gada Bībeles tulkojuma revīzija.

Scientific Databases

In the sciences especially, it has become customary to cite data from a database by listing, at a minimum, the name of the database, a descriptive phrase or record locator indicating the part of the database being cited or explaining the nature of the reference, an access date, and a URL.

Legal and Public Documents

Citations in predominantly legal works generally follow one of two guides: The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation  vai ALWD Guide to Legal Citation 

Dictionaries and Encyclopedias

Well known reference books, such as dictionaries and encyclopedias, are normally cited in notes rather than in bibliographies. They are more likely to be consulted online as well. If a physical edition is cited, not only the edition number but also the date the volume or set was issued must be specified.

  • 1Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed. (1980), s.v. "salvation."

Working Papers 

Working papers and similar documents, sometimes produced in advance of publication on a particular topic, can be treated as a dissertation or thesis or a lecture, paper, or other presentation.

  • 1Deborah D. Lucki and Richard W. Pollay, ''Content Analyses of Advertising: A Review of the Literature'' (working paper, History of Advertising Archives, Faculty of Commerce, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, 1980).

Interview

Interviews are usually cited under the name of the interviewee rather than the interviewer.

Note

Shortened note

  • 1 Buolamwini, interview.

Bibliography entry

Live Performances

Live performances, unlike recordings, cannot be consulted as such by readers. For that reason, it is sufficient to mention details in the text or in the notes rather than in bibliography. In addition to specifying the name and location of the venue and the date of the performance, include as much information as needed to identify the performance. 

  • In performance of Lin-Manuel Miranda's Hamilton at the Richard Rodgers Theatre in New York on February 2, 2016,...
  • 1Hamilton, music and lyrics by Lin-Manuel Miranda, dir. Thomas Kail, chor. Andy Blakenbuehler, Richard Rodgers Theatre, New York, NY, February 2,2016.
  • 1David G. Harper, ''The several Discoveries of the Ciliary Muscle'' (PowerPoint presentation, 25th Anniversary of the Cogan Ophthalmic History Society, Bethesda, MD, March 31, 2012). 

Audiovisual Recordings and Other Multimedia

The citation for recordings and other multimedia content usually includes some or all of the following elements:

  1. The name of the composer, writer, performer, or other person primarily responsible for the content. Include designations such as vocalist, director etc.
  2. The title of the work, in italics or quotation marks, as applicable.
  3. Information about the work, including the names of additional contributors and the date and location of the recording, production or performance. 
  4. Information about the publisher, including date of publication.
  5. Information about the medium or format. Supplementary information, such as the duration of the recording. 
  6. Any additional information that might be relevant to the citation.
  7. For sources consulted online, a URL.

The order of these elements, and which ones are included, will depend not only on the nature of the source but also on whether a part of the whole is cited and whether a particular contributor is the focus of the citation. 


 

 

TOP Universities THE World University Rankings UMR